Sociolinguistics Definition and Examples

Sociolinguistics takes language samples from sets of random population subjects and looks at variables that include such things as pronunciation, word choice, and colloquialisms. The is data is then measured against socio-economic indices such as education, income/wealth, occupation, ethnic heritage, age, and family dynamics to better understand the relationship between language and society. Thanks to its dual focus, sociolinguistics is considered a branch of both linguistics and sociology.  However, the broader study of the field may also encompass anthropological linguistics, dialectology, discourse analysis, ethnography of speaking, geolinguistics, language contact studies, secular linguistics, the social psychology of language, and the sociology of language. The Right Words for the Given Situation Sociolinguistic competence means knowing which words to choose for a given audience and situation to get the desired effect. For instance, say you wanted to get someones attention. If you were a 17-year-old boy and you spotted your friend Larry walking out to his car, youd probably utter something loud and informal along the lines of: Hey, Larry! On the other hand, if you were that same 17-year-old boy and saw the school principal drop something in the parking lot as she was walking to her car, youd more likely utter something along the lines of, Excuse me, Mrs. Phelps! You dropped your scarf. This word choice has to do with societal expectations on the part of both the speaker and the person to whom he is speaking. If the 17-year-old hollered, Hey! You dropped something! in this instance, it could be considered rude. The principal has certain expectations with regard to her status and authority. If the speaker understands and respects those societal constructs, he will choose his language accordingly to make his point and express proper deference. How Language Defines Who We Are Perhaps the most famous example of the study of sociolinguistics comes to us in the form Pygmalion, the play by Irish playwright and author George Bernard Shaw that went on to become the basis for the musical My Fair Lady. The story opens outside Londons Covent Garden market, where the upper crust post-theater crowd is attempting to stay out of the rain. Among the group are Mrs. Eynsford, her son, and daughter, Colonel Pickering (a well-bred gentleman), and a Cockney flower girl, Eliza Doolittle (a.k.a Liza). In the shadows, a mysterious man is taking notes. When Eliza catches him writing down everything she says, she thinks he’s a policeman and loudly protests that she hasn’t done anything. The mystery man isn’t a cop—he’s a professor of linguistics, Henry Higgins. Coincidentally, Pickering is also a linguist. Higgins boasts that he could turn Eliza into a duchess or the verbal equivalent in six months, with no idea that Eliza has overheard him and is actually going to take him up on it. When Pickering bets Higgins he can’t succeed, a wager is made and the bet is on. Over the course of the play, Higgins does indeed transform Eliza from guttersnipe to grand dame, culminating with her presentation to the queen at a royal ball. Along the way, however, Eliza must modify not only her pronunciation but her choice of words and subject matter. In a wonderful third-act scene, Higgins brings his protà ©gà © out for a test run. She’s taken to tea at the home of Higgins very proper mother with strict orders: â€Å"She’s to keep to two subjects: the weather and everybody’s health—Fine day and How do you do, you know—and not to let herself go on things in general. That will be safe.† Also in attendance are the Eynsford Hills. While Eliza valiantly attempts to stick to the limited subject matter, it’s clear from the following exchange that her metamorphosis is as yet incomplete: MRS. EYNSFORD HILL:  I’m sure I hope it won’t turn cold. There’s so much influenza about. It runs right through our whole family regularly every spring. LIZA: [darkly] My aunt died of influenza—so they said. MRS. EYNSFORD HILL [clicks her tongue sympathetically] LIZA: [in the same tragic tone] But it’s my belief they done the old woman in. MRS. HIGGINS: [puzzled] Done her in? LIZA: Y-e-e-e-es, Lord love you! Why should she die of influenza? She come through diphtheria right enough the year before. I saw her with my own eyes. Fairly blue with it, she was. They all thought she was dead; but my father he kept ladling gin down her throat til she came to so sudden that she bit the bowl off the spoon. MRS. EYNSFORD HILL: [startled] Dear me! LIZA: [piling up the indictment] What call would a woman with that strength in her have to die of influenza? What become of her new straw hat that should have come to me? Somebody pinched it; and what I say is, them as pinched it done her in. Written just after the close of the Edwardian Era, when class distinction in British society was steeped in centuries-old traditions strictly delineated by a set of codes that related to family status and wealth as well as occupation and personal behavior (or morality), at the heart of the play is the concept that how we speak and what we say directly defines not only who we are and where we stand in society but also what we can hope to achieve—and what we can never achieve. A lady speaks like a lady, and a flower girl speaks like a flower girl and never the twain shall meet. At the time, this distinction of speech separated the classes and made it virtually impossible for someone from the lower ranks to rise above their station. While both a shrewd social commentary and an amusing comedy in its day, assumptions made on the basis of these linguistic precepts had a very real impact on every aspect daily life—economic and social—from what job you could take, to whom you could or could not marry. Such things matter much less today of course, however, it is still possible for some sociolinguistic experts to pinpoint who you are and where you come from by the way you speak.

The Edible Woman By Margaret Atwood And Mrs. Dalloway Essay

There are several different types of Narration and narrator roles in narratives, with each having a different effect upon the novel. However, each of these different narrator and narration types have their own advantages and limitations in regards the narrative. Each role, ranging from first to third person, has its own unique advantages, including the personal insight into a characters, which can be found in first person, to the understanding of several different points of view, as seen in third person, and so on. Each role contrasts the other, exploring the novel, and understanding the characters, in different ways to produce a different effect within the novel. Some of these contrasting, and differing elements, can be found in The Edible Woman by Margaret Atwood and Mrs Dalloway, by Virginia Woolf, where there is shown a clear difference between one narration style and another. These can range from first person and third person narrator, a shifting and alternating narration, as ca n be seen in Atwood’s The Edible Woman, to 3rd person omniscient narrator, , and an indirect interior monologue narration style, as can be seen in Mrs Dalloway by Woolf. Each text provides a different insight and perspective into a narrative form, from narrator roles to Narration type, that helps bring the story to life for the audience of the novel, and each has its own limitations and advantages to do with telling the story. In The Edible Woman by Margaret Atwood, the narration type, and the

Describe the main differences betwen the Yalta and Potsdam free essay sample

The Big Three, as they were known, met in February 1945 at Yalta, Crimea, USSR, and then again In July at Potsdam, Germany. These conferences, the Yalta Conference and the Potsdam conference respectively, were meant to decide the future of the world after the wardecisions made by the three most powerful men In the world at the time, from the three most powerful nations. While both conferences were meant to attempt a smooth transition into post-war life, the two summits still differed greatly, even though they were intended to accomplish the same things.The main differences between the Yalta Conference and the Potsdam conference were the changes In the Big Three between the conferences, alterations In the aims of the traders, and a general heightening of tensions between the three nations. The difference in the leaders involved in the two conferences was a major factor in the differentiation between Yalta and Potsdam. We will write a custom essay sample on Describe the main differences betwen the Yalta and Potsdam or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page At Yalta, the Big Three was composed of British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, U. S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin. At Potsdam, Attlee replaced Churchill after his defeat In the British elections, and Truman took Roosevelt position. The only constant figure In the conferences was Stalin, the leader of one of the most introversion nations in the world. As previously mentioned, the only issue the three countries truly saw eye-to-eye on was eradicating the Nazi presence from the world. Two capitalist nations allied with a vehemently communist one already poses some problems with communications, and the change from Roosevelt to Truman between the conferences only added to the discrepancies between Yalta and Potsdam.Truman stated of his ally Stalin that he was tired of babying the Soviets. Roosevelt, a much more diplomatic figure, was one of the key factors In the disparity teens Yalta and Potsdam. While he also had doubts about Russia, Roosevelt kept these feelings between himself and Churchill, without truly laying them out in the open. Truman openly stated that he was going to get tough with the Russians, and so contributed to the difference In policies that the US had regarding the Russians at Potsdam.The change In the Big Three at Yalta and Potsdam was a large part In the disparities In the two conferences. Other contributing issues in the difference between Yalta and Potsdam concerned he objectives of the Big Three at Yalta and the disagreements over them at Potsdam. At Yalta, Germany and Japan were both undefeated at the time, yet plans were being made as to Germanys division after its predicted loss. The Big Three Intended to divide up Germany Into French, British, Russian, and American sections.Russia also the war, totaling at about 20 million deaths and the destruction of over 1000 towns. Stalin wanted harsh payment from the Germans, involving the confiscation of about 80% of its industry, allied control of the economy, and annual reparations payments dad to the allies. These numbers are vital to later understanding the mentality of the Russians by the time of the so-called Long Telegram. To look into the matter, a reparations commission was set up.Furthermore, in exchange for Soviet control of Poland (reorganizing the government to be made democratic), the Russians agreed to facilitate the formation of democratic states in Eastern Europe that would be freed from German control. Lastly, it was agreed upon that once Germany was defeated, Russia would formally enter the war against Japan to aid in its defeat. At Potsdam, forever, these aims and objectives were forced into close scrutiny by the Big Three, and major disagreements between the three leaders occurred.By this time, Germany had been defeated, although the US was still at war with Japan. Regarding Germany, which was agreed upon at Yalta to be split into four zones, the Big Three faced open contention over the boundaries of the four sections. Germany was also forced to pay reparations to Russia, and was forced to give up 10% of its industry. However, Britain and the US felt that it was too much and that milking Germany of all its assets would eave its people poor and starving.Other disagreements that arose involved the Eastern European democratic states that were supposed to be established by Russia; Britain and the US claimed that communism was manifesting itself in those states with the aid of the Soviets, rather than the intended democracies. Lastly, Truman and Attlee had doubts in the Soviet control of Poland, after Stalin arrested all non- communists in the Polish state. Stalin wanted Attlee and Truman to recognize his authority over these puppet states, which they refused to do. The main difference teens Yalta and Potsdam was the level of consensus reached in each of the conferences.The objectives were mapped out at Yalta, and then disputed over at Potsdam. Although they apparently remained the same on paper, there was much disagreement over the application of the aims, which then translated into the major difference between the two conferences. Another main difference between the Yalta Conference and the Potsdam Conference was the level of tensions between the Big Three. At Yalta, while there were still tensions present, most of it was hidden behind the scenes; at Potsdam, open agreement was the case.When Churchill was part of the Big Three, he wrote to Roosevelt during Yalta The Soviet Union has become a danger to the free world. However, at Potsdam, there were open accusations regarding Russians approach to communism and their attempt at transforming the rest of Europe into a communist society. The changes in their objectives also inflamed tensions, with the disagreements over Germanys new borders, Soviet entitlement to reparations, and Russian power over Eastern Europe heightening the power struggles between the Big Three.Truman w as also obviously angered by Stalins move to arrest all of Pollards non-communist leaders. Additionally, at Yalta, Russia had agreed to aid the US in their war against Japan; however, by Potsdam, Truman had had news of the atomic bomb testing and avoided notifying Stalin. Stalin was furious when he discovered Stalin in the dark. Tensions also increased when the US and Britain demanded free elections be held in Romania, Hungary and Bulgaria, whereas Stalin insisted that they would remain under his control. In general, one of the main differences between theYalta Conference and Potsdam was the increase in strained relations between the Big Three. Yalta and Potsdam were the two major peace conferences in World War II. They were both intended to achieve a state of post-war peace, and yet somehow metamorphosed into the arising of further global discord. Even though issues at both conferences were the same, the conferences were not. The major differences between Yalta and Potsdam were the changes in the leaders involved, a shift in the objectives and aims of the conferences, and a great heightening of tensions between he Big Three.

Research writing an Example of the Topic Psychology Essays by

Research writing Introduction Much research has been done in the field of academic achievement and many authors have given their suggestions about the factors that influence students within the school environment. Two of these factors include student attitudes and school context. Against this theoretical background, it is necessary to look at how important these two factors are and exactly how those factors affect student outcomes. The aim of the research is to; Need essay sample on "Research writing" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed Establish a relationship between students attitude and academic performance Establish a relationship between school context and academic performance Determine the most influential factor that affects academic success Theory Research has shown that a large number of students' performances are affected by their attitudes towards specific subjects, education and academics in general (Bowen & Richman, 2000). It has been suggested that when students demonstrate week commitment to their academics then they are bound to under perform. Additionally, some students with an unrealistic view of themselves may perform poorly too, for instance, those who tend to be overconfident or naive about the requirements of their academics may register very poor performance. (Broughton,2003). Conversely, when students do not believe in themselves or when they have low self confidence, then chances are that they will underachieve (Powers, 2006). Sometimes some students may think of themselves as people who cannot control their own destiny. They imagine that they are victims of the system and this can lead to academic failure. In other scenarios some students may be too proud to ask for help when they encounter a problem in their studies. (Bowen & Richman, 2000), also, some students find it difficult to grow or develop because they tend to resist change and this impedes their academic progress. In other situations, a student may not work well in groups yet this is a necessary part of the academic environment. Lastly, some students tend to avoid those areas where they perform poorly such as in science or mathematics. These and many more aspects of student's attitudes can be causes of academic failure. School context is depicted through certain avenues. These avenues can either lead to excellent performance or poor performance depending on how they are implemented (Powers, 2006). In certain schools, the system may be too bureaucratic to the point that both teachers and students cannot do their jobs. This eventually leads to poor performance (Bowen & Richman, 2000). In other situations, teachers lack the skills to impart knowledge and this may cause failures, likewise, some teachers may be disengaged with thei r students and this brings about problems in the end (Broughton, 2003). Additionally, there are certain school environments that are influenced by the external world to such a large extent that the students cannot concentrate on what they are meant to do, such schools lack discipline (Broughton, 2003). Some school environments may have certain levels of segregation and this impedes academic success (Broughton, 2003). Literature Review Academic Achievement Academic achievement is an issue that involves the school context and the students. Students have to show some effort in academics to achieve academic excellence and the school too has roles to play in academic achievement. Several ways or programs have been put in place just to improve the performance in schools, colleges and other learning institutions. These programs are based on elimination of the factors that affect academic performance or to prevent reduced performance due to the very factors that affect academic performance (Lopez-Lee, 2007). Identified factors that affect academic achievement are such as student attitude, school context, racism, students social life and so many others. The two major ones are student engagement influenced by attitude and school context. These two factors will always affect academic achievement in any kind of education institution whether for the disabled, the blind or just normal educational institutions (ERI C, 2006). In order to ensure academic success, the causative factors have to be identified and eliminated (Lopez-Lee, 2007). Academic excellence involves all parents, teachers and the students. Students have to put required effort as well as the teachers, while parents play the role of supporting the students so that family matters do not affect the performance. If a student is stressed due to family problems, the performance is affected too. It is the responsibility of the parents to ensure these are eliminated in collaboration with the teachers or the professionals (Seidman and Tinto, 2005). Physiological and Contextual Factors of Academic Success Academic achievement has been indicated in most research to be controlled by teachers in the various educational institutions. It is the responsibility of a teacher to make the student realize her/his abilities and develop confidence in it. As it has been noted earlier, the performance of a student is affected by so many factors, one of them being the attitude of the student. A teacher is charged with the responsibility of being supportive to the students to make the students have the important competence in academics (Seidman and Tinto, 2005). It has always been, or it is hypothesized that the attitudes of students affect the academic achievement and this attitude is always build by the teachers. The teacher plays a very important role as it is evident that they influence the behavior and attitude of students which in turn affect the performance. Teachers therefore affect performance indirectly (Seidman and Tinto, 2005). School context involve teachers instructions, supportive activities and consistent clear and high expectations. If the school context has developed good behavior and required attitudes in students, then it is with no doubt that the performance will also be positive. If the mediators are positive, then the result becomes positive (Seidman and Tinto, 2005). Importance of Student Attitude in Academic Performance In any kind of academic setting, there will always be learning activities. These require a student to be engaged in the activities, which is the reason why they are formulated in the first place. In engagement in learning, a student or a learner participates in the learning activities or is said to have some interest. This interest and participation differs from one student to the other. It is the work of the attitudes and behaviors that are also different and so produce the different engagement. Engagement in learning activities be it in the classroom or outside lead to success in academics (Alexander and Winne, 2006). This is the reason why attitude is always an important role in the academic achievement since it forms part of a student's engagement in learning activities. Research shows that students who engage more learn more and therefore academic achievement is high (Willms, 2003). Motivation improves engagement and this is another area of concern in academic achievement. For the students to be engaged, it requires the efforts of the teachers, as well as their own. School context therefore is important in academic achievement in supporting student engagement in good performance. Importance of School Context in Academic Performance Student engagement is influenced by the school context. The factors of school context that influence a student's engagement are, the support the teachers give towards building a positive attitude towards learning, the support given to encourage high clear, consistent behavioral expectations, the quality of instructions that the school offer which should improve the performance of the students, and the academic expectations the school sets for the students (Willms, 2003). Both behavioral and academic expectations should be set high, clear and consistent if the school targets academic achievement in a certain area of learning, the instructions should be of high quality and the relationship with teachers be positive towards achievement of academic excellence of the specific target of education. The Relationship Between Student Attitude and School Context. Mediators Students attitudes and school context are mediated by certain psychological factors. The degree of competence and confidence of a student is one of the factors that come in between the school context and student attitude. When a student is confident and believes in his/her competency to be successful in education, the student will perform well. A student who is not confident will not perform well based on the lack of confidence in his/her ability to perform. This affects the attitude of the student and may end up dropping out of school or giving up on performance (Coleman, 1980). The belief in competence and confidence affects the engagement of the student in school activities hence academic performance. This is the reason why students who believe that they cannot perform well in certain subjects fail, and it also affects their behavior. Engagement as had been indicated, is the much effort the student puts to the learning activities with his/her attitude and behaviors. If a student has less interest in a subject due to belief of incompetency, the attitude and the behavior towards working hard for the subject changes too. The change is negative since it does not support a successful performance target. School Context Success Factors School context relationship to the student engagement affects the academic achievement. There are three factors that need special attention when it comes to student engagement which will in turn affect academic achievement. These are; caring and showing a sense of belonging, consistent, clear and high expectations, and creation of challenging and meaningful educational environments. In showing a sense of belonging, teachers need to be supportive by motivating the students (McInerney and Van Etten, 2004). High clear and consistent expectations builds the students confidence in various learning activities hence influencing the academic achievement positively. The last factor, which is meaningful educational environments, improves students performance by encouraging their participation in learning activities. When teachers develop strategies that challenge the students, make them learn new things and encourage them to show their ability, the students get encouraged and get used to the learning activities to the extent that confidence is built (McInerney and Van Etten, 2004). Significance of Study Upon completion of this study the research may lay out clear causes of academic failure thus facilitating change in school environments. The research may assist teachers in formulating strategies to deal with attitudinal and contextual problems. Additionally, the research will transform traditional ways of thinking about education. It might remove stereotypical notions or ideas held by stakeholders in education. The research may also encourage greater investment in the psychological development of the student because it will review some of the pre-existing psychological attitudes that could be hindering academic excellence. Methodology The research is based on the latter mentioned literature. Consequently, the purpose of the research is to affirm pre-existing theory on factors that affect academic success. Due to the nature of this investigation, it will be necessary to perform a qualitative rather than a quantitative study. This study will entail the use of two types of methodology. The first will be through primary research while the second will be through secondary research. In the primary research, data will be obtained through face to face interviews. Students, teachers and administrators will be asked about the aspects of students' attitudes that affect academic achievement. Additionally, the latter groups will also be asked about the role of school context in academic achievement. Thereafter, they will be required to give their opinions about the most influential factors among the two in their respective schools. The second part of the research will be done through an examination of student reports in a specific school. This will entail obtaining requests from the school administration to utilize their resources in the research. Academic achievement of the participating students will be analyzed for one year while comparing that to certain indicators of school attitude and school context. A relationship will then be established between these factors (Powers, 2006). Limitations Qualitative interviews are generally more difficult to analyze because responses obtained are quite varied, however, answers will be clustered into similar groups to try and establish a relationship between the parameters. Additionally, student attitude and school context are both complex parameters, i.e. they are denoted by other sub-factors. It will be difficult to determine which factors are most important and which ones are not. Delimitations Since the secondary aspect of the research will involve only one school, then it may be difficult to transfer results for the relationship between student attitude and respective student achievement to the entire student population. In relation to this, the issue of school context will also be a problem in secondary research owing to the fact that there will be no comparison with others schools. Conclusion The research's major aim is to establishing a link between school context, student attitude and academic achievement. This might enable teachers/ administrators/ stakeholders to look for ways of enhancing academic achievement. The major limitations of the study revolve around data analysis and data collection while the delimitation will be brought by secondary research which be conducted in only one school. References Alexander, P. A. and Winne, P.H. (2006). Handbook of Educational Psychology. New York: Routledge. Bowen, L. & Richman, M. (2000). Middle Schools Student's Perceptions of the School Environment, Journal of Social Work in Education, 13 (22), 69-82. Broughton, A. (2003). The School Success Profile, Technology in Human Services Journal, 21(1), 11. Coleman, M. T. (1980). Locus of Control and Student Perceived Structure of Classroom Learning Environments as Predictors of Academic Performance and Attitudes. Syracuse University. Educational Resources Information Center (ERI C). (2006). Research in Education. Michigan, U.S: Michigan University. Lopez-Lee, D. (2007). The Cal-State, L.A., Chicano Student: A Study of Academic Performance of EOP Chicanos, Non-EOP Chicanos, and Anglos, and the Relationship of Attitudes to Academic Performance. California State College: Educational Opportunity Program. McInerney, M. D. and Van Etten, S. (2004). Influences on Motivation and Learning. IAP. Powers, J. (2006). Assessing the Functioning of Schools as Learning Organizations, Journal for schools and children, 13 (29), 208 Seidman, A. and Tinto, V. (2005). College Student Retention: Formula for Student Success. Greenwood Publishing Group. Willms, D. J. (2003). Student Engagement at School: A Sense of Belonging and Participation: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, Programme for International Student Assessment. OECD Publishing